Aristotle (384–322 BCE)

"Man is by nature a political animal." (Zoon Politikon)

While Plato soared in the realm of ideas (Idealism), his student Aristotle grounded his philosophy in observation and facts (Realism). He is known as the Father of Political Science because he was the first to analyze political institutions scientifically, famously studying 158 constitutions (including Athens) to form his theories.

1. Key Works

• The Politics: His seminal work on the state, government, and citizenship. It is divided into 8 books.
• The Nicomachean Ethics: Deals with virtue and the good life. Aristotle famously links the two: "Ethics is the study of the good of the individual; Politics is the study of the good of the community."
• The Constitution of Athens: A descriptive work discovered later, providing historical context to Athenian democracy.

2. Methodology: Teleology and Empiricism

• Inductive Method: Unlike Plato’s deductive method (moving from abstract idea to reality), Aristotle used the inductive method (observing reality to form general principles).
• Teleology: He believed everything in nature has a Telos (purpose/end). The acorn exists to become an oak tree. similarly, man exists to live in a state.
• The Golden Mean: Aristotle advocated for moderation in all things. Virtue stands in the middle of two extremes (e.g., Courage is the mean between Cowardice and Rashness).

3. Theory of the State (Organic Theory)

Aristotle argues the State is natural, not artificial (contra Social Contract theorists like Hobbes).

• Evolution of the State:

1. Family: Union of male/female and master/slave. Satisfies daily needs (food, reproduction).
2. Village: Union of several families. Satisfies non-daily needs (security, religion).
3. Polis (State): Union of several villages. It is the highest community aiming at the Highest Good.

• "State is Prior to the Individual": Chronologically, man comes first, but logically, the state comes first. Just as a hand has no meaning without the body, an individual has no meaning without the state.
• Purpose: The state comes into existence for the sake of life (survival) but continues to exist for the sake of good life (Eudaimonia or flourishing).

4. Critique of Plato

In Book II of The Politics, Aristotle critiques his teacher’s Republic:

• On Unity: Plato wanted excessive unity ("The state should be like a family"). Aristotle argued, "A state is by nature a plurality." Forcing total unity destroys the state.

• On Communism of Property: Aristotle defended private property.

• Psychological: People care more for what is their own. Common property leads to neglect ("tragedy of the commons").

• Moral: Private property allows for the virtue of Liberality (charity/generosity).

• On Communism of Families: He argued it would dilute emotional bonds. "A son of all is a son of none."

5. Theory of Slavery

Aristotle justifies slavery as natural and beneficial for both master and slave.

• Natural Slave: Some men are by nature inferior; they possess a body but lack Reason. They need a master to guide them, just as the body needs the soul.

• Justification:

• For the State/Master: Citizens need leisure to participate in politics/philosophy. Slaves provide this labor.

• For the Slave: The slave shares in the master's virtue and is protected.

• Limitations: He distinguished between "Natural Slaves" and "Legal Slaves" (Prisoners of War). He opposed enslaving Greeks. He also suggested that masters should treat slaves well and offer the hope of emancipation.

6. Theory of Citizenship

In Book III, Aristotle defines a citizen not by residence or legal rights (which aliens/slaves can have) but by participation.

• Definition: A citizen is one who shares in the administration of justice and the holding of office (deliberative and judicial functions).
• Exclusions: He famously excluded:
• Slaves (Lack reason).
• Women (Inferior reasoning).
• Children (Immature).
• Old people (Physically weak).
• Mechanics/Laborers: They lack the "leisure" required for citizenship. Their minds are "debased" by manual labor.

7. Classification of Constitutions

Aristotle classified states based on two criteria: Quantity (Number of rulers) and Quality (Purpose: Public Interest vs. Self Interest).

• Polity: This is Aristotle's "Best Practicable State." It is a mixed constitution (Oligarchy + Democracy) dominated by the Middle Class, ensuring stability and the "Golden Mean."

8. Theory of Justice

• Distributive Justice: Giving every man his due. Offices and honors should be distributed based on Merit (contribution to the state). It follows geometric proportion (equals treated equally, unequals unequally).
• Corrective (Rectificatory) Justice: Deals with voluntary/involuntary transactions (contracts, crimes). The judge restores the balance (arithmetic proportion) regardless of the person's status.

9. Theory of Revolution (Stasis)

In Book V, Aristotle gives a masterclass on political instability.

• General Cause: A passion for Equality.

• Inferiors revolt to be equal.

• Equals revolt to be superior.

• Particular Causes: Insolence, fear, contempt, disproportionate increase in one part of the state, election intrigues.

• Remedies:

• Educate citizens in the spirit of the constitution.

• Prevent the concentration of power.

• Rule of Law: "Law is reason without passion."